Terms+(+By+Monika+and+Haya)


 * __CCT490 Exam Notes__**

-explain term -explain diff’s between terms -name term -fill in the blank -relate term to theme -who/when/why
 * Questions:**


 * __Terms and Concepts__**

Allowed any person or company to place a copyright on their software.
 * 1980 amendments to US Copyright Act**

501(c)(3) exemptions apply to corporations, and any community chest, fund, cooperating association or foundation, organized and operated exclusively for religious, charitable, scientific, testing for public safety, literary, or educational purposes, to foster national or international amateur sports competition, to promote the arts, or for the prevention of cruelty to children or animals. A private foundation, sometimes called a non-operating foundation, receives most of its income from investments and endowments. This income is used to make grants to other organizations, rather than being dispersed directly for charitable activities. Private foundations are defined in the Internal Revenue Code under section 509(a) as 501(c)(3) organizations, which do not qualify as public charities.
 * 501(c)(3)**

By 2007 most smartphones use this operating system, which is also open source. Google has distributed this software for free and allows for modifications so that a lot of the modification work can be done by other companies instead of google doing the work./ **Android ** is a mobile operating system initially developed by Android Inc. Android was purchased by Google in 2005. Android is based upon a modified version of the Linux kernel. Google and other members of the Alliance collaborated to develop and release Android to the world. (From Notes): Smartphone OS; includes internet services...Google invests in it because it encourages web browsing, which Google profits off of
 * Android**

The pre-release versions (before 0.6.2) of the Apache web server software were created by Robert McCool, who was heavily involved with the National Center for Supercomputing Applications web server, known simply as NCSA HTTPd. The system operates through the work of volunteers who specialize in certain areas of coding. The Apache Group (AG) emphasizes decentralization and has a low interdependency in the tasks they do. The AG is a multinational server, having developers located in U.S., Britain, Canada, Germany, and Italy. Although Apache collaborates as a group, the work is done by individuals. Their decisions are a result of e-mail and quorum voting system.
 * Apache HTTP server**

Was a copyright infringement lawsuit in which Apple Computer, Inc. Wanted to prevent Microsoft Corporation and Hewlett-Packard from using visual graphical user interface (GUI) elements that were similar to those in Apple's Lisa and Macintosh operating systems. The court ruled that, "Apple cannot get patent-like protection for the idea of a graphical user interface, or the idea of a desktop metaphor [under copyright law]..." In the midst of the //Apple v. Microsoft // lawsuit, Xerox also sued Apple alleging that Mac's GUI was heavily based on Xerox's. The district court dismissed Xerox's claims without addressing whether Apple's GUI infringed Xerox's. Apple lost all claims in the //Microsoft // suit except for the ruling that the trash can icon and file folder icons from Hewlett-Packard's NewWave windows application were infringing. The lawsuit was filed in 1988 and lasted four years; the decision was affirmed on appeal in 1994, and Apple's appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court was denied.
 * Apple Computer Inc. v Microsoft Corp**

Created by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA), this was the first transcontinental, high-speed computer network, forerunning the internet. It linked many universities and research centers. Sputnik, the Russian Satellite, was a stimulant to the development of Arpanet. This research project was banked by the US government. Email was later invented and became the basis of communication for Arpanet in 1969.
 * Arpanet**

In order to dissolve AT&T’s monopoly in the 1970's over the telephone industry, the government forced it to divest into smaller companies. This allowed AT&T to reclaim the Unix OS and sell it.
 * AT&T**

In a word processor package, a mode of text placement in which text flows continuously onto successive pages or columns. Additional pages are usually created as needed, depending upon the application. In the mid-1960s, when software was still bundled with hardware, several independent contract programming firms attempted to license a generalized program to multiple users for a standard fee. Applied Data Research (ADR), which owned the AUTOFLOW program was one of those companies. [Summary of Autoflow’s history: []]In essence, Autoflow was the first software product the sold separately.
 * Autoflow**

In 1859, Charles Selden obtained copyright in a book he wrote called //Selden's Condensed Ledger, or Book-keeping Simplified//. In it the book he described an improved system of book-keeping. The books contained about twenty pages of primarily book-keeping forms and only about 650 words. In addition, the books contained examples and an introduction. In the following years Selden made several other books, improving on the initial system. In total, Selden wrote six books, though, evidence suggests that they were really six editions of the same book. Selden, however, was unsuccessful in selling his books. He originally believed he could sell his system to several counties and the United States Department of the Treasury. Those sales never happened. Selden was forced to assign his interest—an interest that apparently was returned to his wife after his death in 1871. In 1867, Baker produced a book describing a very similar system. Unlike Selden, Baker was more successful at selling his book–selling it to some 40 counties within five years. In 1872, a suit against Baker for copyright infringement was filed by the late Selden’s wife. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">The court opinion first held that a book did not give an author the right to exclude others from practicing what was described in the book: "[W]hilst no one has a right to print or publish his book, or any material part thereof, as a book intended to convey instruction in the art, any person may practice and use the art itself which he has described and illustrated therein...." The copyright of a book on bookkeeping cannot secure the exclusive right to make, sell, and use account books prepared upon the plan set forth in such a book." **//Significance://** The court wrote extensively about the distinction between patent law and copyright law. Exclusive rights to the “useful art” described in a book were only available by patent. The description itself was protectable by copyright. Essentially, it is difference of expression. It was the way that Baker wrote it that differentiated his book from that of Selden's, it differentiated devices and books. It was from this that patents can be categorized as ideas and copyright as expressions.
 * Baker v Selden**

<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">Act dealing with intellectual property arising from federal government-funded research. Among other things, it gave U.S. universities, small businesses and non-profits intellectual property control of their inventions and other intellectual property that resulted from such funding. Perhaps the most important change of Bayh-Dole is that it reversed the presumption of title. Bayh-Dole permits a university, small business, or non-profit institution to elect to pursue ownership of an invention in preference to the government. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">(From notes): If the government hires universities for research, the uni’s are allowed to apply for patents. If a researcher comes up with an idea, they get credit. (From Notes): Understood to be “in charge”. Position that everyone understands; usually original author of a program (i.e. Linus of Linux). Leadership is needed; more efficient than democracy (From text): Better to think of the BD more as a judge, who doesn’t make all the decisions, as they do not have expertise in all fields. They let things work out through discussion and experimentation whenever possible. A good BD is sensitive to one’s own influence in the project and only acts as a dictator when there is a clear consensus among the group that they want an individual to make a decision when one cannot otherwise be reached.
 * Bayh-Dole Act**
 * benevolent dictator**

States that as the number of contributors to a project increases, the number of bugs and communication errors will increase as well.
 * Brooks's Law**

Berkeley Software Development was an operating system based off basic Unix code. It was the standard system in the 1980s, however shut down due to lack of funding in 1994.
 * BSD**

<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Bug tracking is the process you use to address programming errors found. This process includes recording the bug, reviewing it, recording the fix needed, and deciding whether or not the bug will be fixed considering budget and schedule. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">(From Notes): Email mailing list to report bugs. Advantage: Someone else may already respond to the problem. Good way of bringing people into a project...reporting then fixing bugs. (i.e. Mozilla’s Bugzilla)
 * bug tracking**

<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;">A high-level programming language developed by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs in the mid 1970s. Although originally designed as a systems programming language, C has proved to be a powerful and flexible language that can be used for a variety of applications , from business programs to engineering. C is a particularly popular language for personal computer programmers because it is relatively small -- it requires less memory than other languages. <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;">The first major program written in C was the UNIX operating system, and for many years C was considered to be inextricably linked with UNIX. Now, however, C is an important language independent of UNIX. <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 0cm; vertical-align: baseline;">Although it is a high-level language, C is much closer to assembly language than are most other high-level languages. This closeness to the underlying machine language allows C programmers to write very efficient code. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">The **//Cathedral//** model, in which source code is available with each software release, but code developed between releases is restricted to an exclusive group of software developers. GNU Emacs and GCC are presented as examples. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> The **//Bazaar//** model, in which the code is developed over the Internet in view of the public. Raymond credits Linus Torvalds, leader of the Linux kernel project, as the inventor of this process. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> The essay's central thesis is Raymond's proposition that "given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow" (which he terms Linus's Law): the more widely available the source code is for public testing, scrutiny, and experimentation, the more rapidly all forms of bugs will be discovered. In contrast, Raymond claims that an inordinate amount of time and energy must be spent hunting for bugs in the Cathedral model, since the working version of the code is available only to a few developers.
 * C**
 * cathedral vs bazaar**

<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">Distributed **//revision control//** (DRCS) takes a peer-to-peer approach, as opposed to the client-server approach of centralized systems. Rather than a single, central repository on which clients synchronize, each peer's working copy of the codebase is a bona-fide repository. Distributed revision control conducts synchronization by exchanging patches (change-sets) from peer to peer. This results in some important differences from a centralized system: <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;">-No canonical, reference copy of the codebase exists by default; only working copies. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;">-Common operations (such as commits, viewing history, and reverting changes) are fast, because there is no need to communicate with a central server. Rather, communication is only necessary when pushing or pulling changes to or from other peers. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;"> -Each working copy effectively functions as a remote backup of the codebase and of its change-history, providing natural protection against data loss. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">Other differences are as follows: <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;">-There may be many "central" repositories. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;"> -Code from disparate repositories are merged based on a web of trust, i.e., historical merit or quality of changes. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;"> -Lieutenants are project members who have the power to dynamically decide which branches to merge. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;"> -Network is //not// involved in most operations. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;"> -A separate set of "sync" operations are available for committing or receiving changes with remote repositories. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">DRC proponents point to several advantages of distributed version control systems over the traditional centralised model: <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;">-Allows users to work productively even when not connected to a network <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;"> -Makes most operations much faster since no network is involved <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;"> -Allows participation in projects without requiring permissions from project authorities, and thus arguably better fosters culture of meritocracy instead of requiring "committer" status <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;"> -Allows private work, so users can use their revision control system even for early drafts they do not want to publish <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;"> -Avoids relying on a single physical machine as a single point of failure. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt;"> -Still permits centralized control of the "release version" of the project <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">Software development author Joel Spolsky describes distributed version control as "possibly the biggest advance in software development technology in the [past] ten years." <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">As a disadvantage of DRC, one could note that initial cloning of a repository is slower compared to centralized checkout, because all branches and revision history are copied. This may be relevant if access speed is low and the project is large enough. The two most famous centralized version control systems are [|CVS] and [|Subversion]. They are called // centralized // because **//all the collaborators of a project work against//** //**<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-style: normal;">one **// **// central repository //**. Everybody works against a central repository and this repository is located in a different directory to the one holding the files you work with, which is called the “working directory”. The repository can be located in the same machine or in a different machine accessed by a specific system protocol or by other means. **//The repository must be available everytime you want to commit your changes//**. Who can commit changes to a repository? In the simplest case, anyone having write access to the repository directories either because you own it or because your user group can write to it. Or maybe there’s an authentication mechanism in place and you need to provide a username and password. **// That’s the working routine: modify-commit-update. This adapts very well to enterprise-like situations, where a group of developers in a flat hierarchy are working on a project and, with some exceptions, each developer is working on a different thing. //** In these situations, it’s unusual to have different project branches so there’s almost no need for branch merges and there’s almost no bureaucracy because everybody trusts everybody and, by having commit privileges to the repository, nobody needs to approve your changes. Everybody is committing changes and receiving changes all the time, via the central repository.
 * centralized vs distributed revision control**

<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">One of the oldest programming languages. Its name is an acronym for **<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">CO **<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">mmon **<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">B **<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">usiness-**O**riented **<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">L **<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">anguage, defining its primary domain in business, finance, and administrative systems for companies and governments.
 * Cobol**

<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Computer scientists speak of //atomic// operations if the system is left in a consistent state even if the operation is interrupted. The //commit// operation is usually the most critical in this sense. Commits are operations which tell the revision control system you want to make a group of changes you have been making final and available to all users. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">In a centralized revision control system, you are expected to make changes and commit them to the repository solving any conflicts that arise. This happens sometimes when, while you changed a file, someone committed a change to that same file and the program can’t automatically apply your changes to it. After every commit or group of commits, you must run a command to update your working directory and bring to it the changes made by others.
 * commit (a noun)**

<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">A person who has permission to modify a particular software source code. The process to becoming a committer can vary across projects, but in general, there are two common ways to do it. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -18pt;">1. Be one of the original developers <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-bottom: 1.2pt; margin-left: 38.4pt; text-indent: -18pt;">2. Get voted a committer by the other committers <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">Becoming a committer in an existing project often involves becoming active on both the mailing lists as well as with supplying patches. After enough involvement, the other committers can then vote you in as a new committer. This normally happens through an e-mail vote.
 * Committer**

(From Notes): (i.e. stapler and staples, computers and software) -You need one to use the other - Prices on such products tend to be related: - If the price of one goes up, the price of the other goes down, in order to prevent people from finding the investment to be not worth it
 * complementary goods**

Amended the 1976 Copyright Act concerning software. In the 1976 general revision of the copyright law, Congress was unable to agree on the proper scope or application of copyright law to computer programs. Congress formed at the CONTU Commission to make recommendations for copyright legislation on various computer-related matters. The new Section 117 did two things: (From Notes): 1) Added “computer programs” to the 1976 Copyright Act 2) Applies to binary software as well
 * Computer Software Copyright Act of 1980**

“Committee on New Technological Uses.” It deemed that computer programs are proper subject matters of copyright. US implementation came through the Copyright Act of 1980
 * CONTU**

A term created by the developers of GNU, copyleft is meant to serve the opposite meaning of copyright. It is a means of keeping software free, and preventing its privatization. The relevance of this term is that it grants free software rights to anyone with a copyleft-licensed product. It also prevents employers from taking a developer’s modifications of software, and using it for private gains. Copyleft states that any modification of a copyleft program must keep the larger, combined version of the program free and copylefted. This would then turn into a legal license called the GNU General Public License. The legal right granted to an author, composer, playwright, publisher, or distributor to exclusive publication, production, sale, or distribution of a literary, musical, dramatic, or artistic work.
 * Copyleft**
 * Copyright**

<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Creative Commons (**CC**) is a non-profit organization headquartered in San Francisco, California devoted to expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share. The organization has released several copyright-licenses known as Creative Commons licenses free of charge to the public. These licenses allow creators to communicate which rights they reserve, and which rights they waive for the benefit of recipients or other creators. An easy to understand one-page explanation of rights, with associated visual symbols, explains the specifics of each Creative Commons license. This simplicity distinguishes Creative Commons from an all-rights reserved copyright. Creative Commons was invented to create a more flexible copyright model, replacing "all rights reserved" with "some rights reserved". Wikipedia is one of the notable web-based projects using one of its licenses.
 * Creative Commons**

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">The economic term for “reduction of wealth” is deadweight loss. This is when both the inventor and the general population lose out on the value of a product due to the inefficient price of the product. Stallman argues that this will make us all poorer and reduce the value of a program. An economist’s response to Stallman would be explaining how deadweight loss is avoided: price discrimination allows the market to charge each user their willingness to pay, avoiding user exclusion. Economists would also say that restricting the product is needed to encourage innovation and helping innovators capture the value.
 * deadweight loss**

<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">US Copyright Office Circular 14: Derivative Works notes that: <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">A typical example of a derivative work received for registration in the Copyright Office is one that is primarily a new work but incorporates some previously published material. **//This previously published material makes the work a derivative work under the copyright law. To be copyrightable, a derivative work must be different enough from the original to be regarded as a "new work" or must contain a substantial amount of new material.//** Making minor changes or additions of little substance to a preexisting work will not qualify the work as a new version for copyright purposes. The new material must be original and copyrightable in itself. Titles, short phrases, and format, for example, are not copyrightable. The statutory definition is incomplete and the concept of derivative work must be understood with reference to explanatory case law.
 * derived work**

<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">A class of text editors, usually characterized by their extensibility. Emacs has over 1,000 commands. It also allows the user to combine these commands into macros to automate work. Development began in the mid-1970s and continues actively as of 2010. The most popular version of Emacs is **GNU Emacs**, a part of the GNU project, which is commonly referred to simply as "Emacs".
 * Emacs**

Acronym for Mauchly and Presper’s 1946 invention, the “Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer”, which was the first general-purpose electronic computer, used by the military to calculate firing targets.
 * ENIAC**

(From Notes): Ex post analysis: analysis that happens after axn has taken place Ex ante analysis: analysis that happens before axn has taken place
 * ex post vs. ex ante**


 * //“Despite its ex post defects, the main justification for intellectual property is made from the ex ante perspective.”//** What Scotchmer means by this statement is that when one is considering the ex post perspective, they are looking back at the outcomes and consequences after the invention of the intellectual property. This perspective makes intellectual property investment seem unappealing, due to the inherent issue of deadweight loss in the distribution model. However, the encouragement to invest in the creation of intellectual property is rooted in the ex ante perspective, which examines benefits that will result from it in the future, such as profit.

In economics, a good or service is said to be excludable when it is possible to prevent people who have not paid for it from having access to it.
 * excludable good**

Forking refers to the splitting of source code into different development directions. Forking leads to the development of different versions of a program. Forking often occurs when the development of a piece of open source code has reached an stalemate, due to disagreement. The project is //forked// so that the code can be developed independently in different ways with different results.
 * forking and forkability**

Forkability the ability of anyone to take the source code of a project and use it as the basis for another competing project. Because of the freedoms that free/open source licenses provide, forkability is an inherent possibility in any FOSS project. This means that anyone who disagrees with the direction of a project may take the source code and start their own project based upon it. Therefore, FOSS projects are always technically forkable.

<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Acronym for **//<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; padding: 0cm;">for //**//<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; padding: 0cm;">mula // **//<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; padding: 0cm;">tran //**//<span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; padding: 0cm;">slator //<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">, FORTRAN is the oldest <span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; padding: 0cm;">high-level programming language <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. Designed by John Backus for <span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; padding: 0cm;">IBM <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">in the late 1950s, it is still popular today, particularly for scientific <span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; padding: 0cm;">applications <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">that require extensive mathematical computations.
 * FORTRAN**

Foundations <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Entities which are like companies (whose main purpose is generally to make $), as both are able to support their group economically, both are a legal entity which can act with the same status as a person. A foundation is a way of doing these things, without having profit as the main objective. Giving money to a project without a foundation lacks credibility from the owner, and receiving it without a foundation means huge taxes. The design of a foundation prevents a member from using the funds unethically. (Part of the 3 part solution in maintaining F/OSS)

** free culture **
The free culture movement is a social movement that promotes the freedom to distribute and modify creative works in the form of free content by using the Internet and other forms of media.The movement objects to overly restrictive copyright laws. Many members of the movement argue that such laws hinder creativity.

free software Programs are free software when they allow users four specific freedoms. These are the freedoms to run (0), study (1), redistribute (2), and improve/release improvements to the public (3). ** Can one //sell// free software? ** As written by Stallman, for a product to be considered free software, it must allow four freedoms to its users. None of these freedoms force a distributer of free software to give away their product for no-cost. As a matter of fact, every user of free software has the ability to redistribute the program for whatever cost they wish– no matter the price (free or otherwise) that they received it. This is due to Freedom 2 of free software. Freedom 2 states that the user has “the freedom to redistribute copies so that you can help your neighbour.” This includes that the distributer cannot restrict the user from selling the product, or giving it away for free. If any distributer //forces// their users to sell or give away their products and modifications, then they do not fall under the definition of free software.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Leads to under-investment; knowing that one could enjoy a public good just as much as another without having to invest in it, when others can do it, leads to under-investment.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> Free-rider problem **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">-the govn’t; 1)compel 2)hire/support 3) reward 4) Help capture the value (i.e. copyright, patents) <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">-other large actors; the more things you own/control, the more value you may be able to capture <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> (i.e. IBM, controlling most of the computer market in the 1970’s gave out free software) <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> - Secrecy; not the best solution
 * //<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Solutions: //**

<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 6pt;">[Global Information Tracker] **//A distributed revision control system with an emphasis on speed//**. Git was initially designed and developed by Linus Torvalds for Linux kernel development. Every Git working directory is a full-fledged repository with complete history and full revision tracking capabilities, not dependent on network access or a central server.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">git **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">The GNU project was started by Richard Stallman to design an operating system, based off of Unix, that allowed hackers from anywhere to share and modify their programs. (Hattem) <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Initiated <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">in 1983 by Richard Stallman, GNU is a Unix-compatible software system developed by the FSF. The project aimed to create non-proprietary software that anyone could download, modify and redistribute. (Monika)
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">GNU **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">(Synonymous with copyleft)The GNU General Public License is a license made to legally specify the implications of Coplyleft as defined by the creators of GNU.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">GPL **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">A situation where two parties (such as a supplier and a manufacturer or the owner of capital and workers) may be able to work most efficiently by cooperating, but refrain from doing so due to concerns that they may give the other party increased bargaining power, and thereby reduce their own profits.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">hold-up problem **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">For example, GM came to Fisher with the suggestion that they make the external body of their cars. Fisher would have to invest in re-designing their factories to make car-cases, but GM assured them that it would be worth it for them in terms of profit in the long run...but where is the guarantee? At the same time, GM agreed they would buy bodies from Fisher, which created a problem for GM because they are now dependent on Fisher. Thus the solution was to make GM and Fisher one company so that they have the same interests.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">(Yuri): Why is “the web development world… dominated by open source”? The reason is based on what economists call “the hold up problem.” When a business relies on assets owned by another party, it may become dependent on that party’s cooperation in the future. In this situation, the party with ownership of a key resource may gain the ability to “hold up” its partner, demanding an unreasonably high price…

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> **//The hold up problem is particularly severe in the IT sector. Building an Internet company on a foundation consisting of proprietary software owned by others is akin to building a house without owning the land under it. When software is sold in binary form, the buyer is subject to hold up by the vendor; if the software needs to be changed in the future, such changes can only be done with the cooperation of the original vendor at the price that the original vendor demands. By relying on open source, a company can invest in developing its product without fear of being held up down the road. Therefore, open source is an economically powerful solution to the hold up problem.//**

Created in 1955, an organization which created a standard communication language and exchange of numerous programs, which allowed for the effective use of the IBM 709 computer.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">IBM SHARE **

As of January 1st, 1970 IBM began to unbundle its prices for its various services, meaning that software would be sold separately. This movement was essentially a response to an antitrust pressures by the government and an impending lawsuit by the CDC company, working under the claim that IBM was not competing fairly against other companies due to their bundling, which caused them to dominate the computing industry. The main effect of IBM’s selling of software was that it actually skyrocketed more than the overall computing market, contributing to a large percentage of their overall revenue.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">IBM unbundling **

<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">In-House development means that a company has programmers on its staff and develops software internally. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">(From Notes): Merge the components and have one develop the software and one use it
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">in-house development **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">(From Notes): Considering the costs for Alice and Bob <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> As an employer, between 2 ppl with equal programming skills, the one who legitimately enjoys the work will be chosen as they will work harder. This is where Free Software workers have the advantage. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">In the job market, potential employees seek to sell their services to employers for some wage, or price. Generally, employers are willing to pay higher wages to employ better workers. While the individual may know his or her own level of ability, the hiring firm is not (usually) able to observe such an intangible trait - thus there is an asymmetry of information between the two parties. Education credentials can be used as a signal to the firm, indicating a certain level of ability that the individual may possess; thereby narrowing the informational gap. This is beneficial to both parties as long as the signal indicates a desirable attribute - a signal such as a criminal record may not be so desirable.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">job market signalling **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> They are a type of legal instrument in the form of an open letter issued by a monarch or government, granting an office, right, monopoly, title, or status to a person or to some entity such as a corporation. They are thus a form of open or public proclamation. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">(From Notes): Govn’t/monarch sold exclusive rights or sometimes gave away as favour (i.e. Stationers Company was granted a monopoly on printing)
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">letters patent **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">As dubbed by Raymond, Linus’s Law is “Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow”. Meaning that with enough testers, hackers, and developers, all problems (programming errors) will be found, and fixed quickly.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Linus's Law **

Linux is an open-source operating system, based off of Unix, that was began by Linus Torvalds. It was initially a kernel, but over a short period of time and many contributions later, Linux became its own operating system. Linux followed a release early, release often pattern – in which Linus would constantly debug, update and release patches of Linux for his users. This was surprising to many developers at the time, as it was a non-traditional style of creating a piece of software. Raymond would name this style a bazaar-type market, in comparison to the cathedral (slow and careful) style of traditional software creation. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">An AI language; it was the most powerful and flexible programming language. Lisp freed IT hackers to think in an unusual and creative way. It was a major factor in their success and it remained one of the hackerdom’s favourite languages. ITS stands for **I**ncompatible **T**imesharing **S**ystem. Many of the ITS projects were written in the AI language lisp. /Lisp is a family of computer programming languages with a long history and a distinctive, fully parenthesized syntax. Originally specified in 1958, Lisp is the second-oldest high-level programming language in widespread use today; only Fortran is older (by one year).
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Linux **
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Lisp **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">A Unix-like computer operating system based on a microkernel architecture created by Andrew S. Tanenbaum for educational purposes; MINIX also inspired the creation of the Linux kernel. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">MINIX (from "mini-Unix") was first released in 1987, with its complete source code made available to universities for study in courses and research. According to Moody, Tanenbaum, the creator of Minix, was extremely hesitant to make any changes to the program that others advised through the newsgroup, but on the other hand, the Linux project thrived on collaboration and continual improvement. Minix was developed true to a vertical-hierarchical style, where only after enough changes to the software had been made, tested and deemed stable, would Tanenbaum then release a new version. However, the Linux project was carried out in a more horizontal-styled hierarchy, where Linus gladly listened to the suggestions of users. Because of this main difference, Minix eventually diminished in popularity while Linux continued to prosper.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Minix **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">MIT’s computer culture seems to have been the first to adopt the term “hacker”. The Signals and Power Committee of the TMRC (Tech Model Railroad Club) (the hackers) became the nucleus of MIT’s Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. At MIT people had the freedom to live out their dream, “the hacker dream.” This started with these hackers playing with the first PDP-1 and inventing programming tools, slang, and an entire surrounding culture that is still recognizably with us today.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">MIT hackers **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">The effect that one user of a good or service has on the value of that product to other people. When network effect is present, the value of a product or service increases as more people use it. For example, if you plant trees on your lawn, the neighbours enjoy it for free. If you own and rent out all the houses on the block, you can factor the trees into the rent and get more value out of them this way. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">(From Notes): Either benefit or hurt other people. Apply to most kinds of software; you care that people use the same software so that people can exchange files and such
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">network externalities **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> **open source** <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> A term created by Eric Raymond, Linus Torvalds, and other developers as a methodology to harness the effects of peer-reviewed software, and make the software appear more pleasing to corporations, by taking out the negative associations with the term “free”, which businesses did not like.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">The term patent usually refers to a right granted to anyone who invents or discovers any new and useful process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof. It is a set of exclusive rights granted by a state to an inventor for a limited period of time in exchange for a public disclosure of an invention. Patents were considered as a prize incentive mechanism during the industrial revolution, where patents became a reward for innovation. **//<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Patents are legal monopolies over the right to provide goods and services //**<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">. The procedure for granting patents, the requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. **//The exclusive right granted to a patentee in most countries is the right to prevent others from making, using, selling, or distributing the patented invention without permission. It is just a right to prevent others' use. It is an incentive to invent and innovate.//**
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Patent **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">A free software license that applies to an otherwise copyrighted work. It also offers many of the same rights found in free software licenses when releasing a work to the public. In contrast to non-permissive copyleft licenses such as the GNU General Public License, **//any copies and derivatives of the source code created under permissive licenses may be made available on terms that are more restrictive than those of the original license.//** For example, source code released under a permissive software license does not have the requirement that all distributed derivatives also be made available to the public.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">permissive license **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Among the hacker culture there is distaste for politics; the free speech character of FOSS antagonizes the aggressive application of IP restrictions, imposed by political bodies. FOSS sensibilities of freedom and the growing hacker assertion that source code is speech, largely regimented as politically neutral through liberal values opens a space for new legal possibilities.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">political agnosticism **

<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Presented before the Peruvian Congress in December 2001, Proposition 1609 proposed the mandatory adoption of the use of free software in all areas of Peru's government, making exceptions only where a developed enough free software application was not yet available. The bill further cited the rapidity of software update cycles, stressing that the frequency of new releases forced governments to make choices between continually purchasing new licenses, operating with out-dated software, or pirating programs. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Proposition 1609 thus asserted legal and economic imperatives for the state to cease its use of closed, proprietary software. Moving beyond arguments that legitimized free software's adoption for practical, technical needs of the state, Proposition 1609 asserted a political narrative that critically implicated external, global relations of dominance and dependence. Through the lens of the bill, global dynamics of power that disproportionately privileged developed national and transnational corporate interests were exposed as piercing the inner workings of Peruvian government. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Free software in Peru became an instrument, then, to directly address the limitations of the state and its relation to global markets. Through free software, new demands to recode the state as a strengthened entity that could act independently from or in challenge to transnational corporate interests could be asserted. Previously framed as a mode of protecting users' fundamental technological freedoms, free software in the Peruvian legislative efforts became a method too for defending states' political and economic sovereignty and for challenging the limitations in technological choice that resulted precisely from a denial of such freedom. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-right: 0.9pt;">In economics, a public good is a good that is nonrival and non-excludable. Non-rivalry means that consumption of the good by one individual does not reduce availability of the good for consumption by others; and non-excludability means that no one can be effectively excluded from using the good. Many forms of information goods have characteristics of public goods.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Proposition 1609 **
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">public vs. private good **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-right: 0.9pt;"> For example, breathing air does not significantly reduce the amount of air available to others, and people cannot be effectively excluded from using the air. There are common problems with public goods (underinvestment, and the free rider problem). More technically, public goods problems are related to the broader issue of externalities.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-right: 0.9pt;">A private good is the opposite of a public good, as they are almost exclusively made for profit. An example of the private good is bread: bread eaten by a given person cannot be consumed by another (rivalry), and it is easy for a baker to refuse to trade a loaf (exclusive). Private goods are considered as rivalrous and excludable.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Rival goods are goods whose consumption by one consumer prevents simultaneous consumption by other consumers. For example, a cookie (for the whole class) is a rival good; it cannot be equally shared; the more people using it the less everyone gets.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">rival goods **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">SAGE, the //Semi Automatic Ground Environment//, was an automated control system for collecting, tracking and intercepting enemy bomber aircraft used by NORAD from the late 1950s into the 1980s. By the time it was fully operational the Soviet bomber threat had been replaced by the Soviet missile threat, for which SAGE was entirely inadequate. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Nevertheless, SAGE was tremendously important; it led to huge advances in online systems and interactive computing, real-time computing, and data communications using modems. It is generally considered to be one of the most advanced and successful large computer systems ever developed. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">IBM's role in SAGE was an important factor leading to IBM's domination of the computer industry
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">SAGE **

Raymond posits that, “Every good work of software starts by scratching a developer’s personal itch.” What is meant by this is that good quality software is the result of a developer being motivated by need or a personal passion, not payment. Yet, this notion has been criticized for promoting the reliance of successful operating systems based on something as inconsistent as desire and impulse. It can be argued that a degree of consistency and structure is required in order to ensure the creation of a complete and effective software project. For example, many important components of the GNU software were carefully developed by way of vision and a plan in order to have a complete, free operating system.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">scratching an itch **


 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> situated knowledge **
 * //<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">When programmers routinely engage in collaboration with each other to acquire knowledge resided in the heads of their peers to accomplish their own programming tasks, //**<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> this kind of collaboration is called situated knowledge collaboration. Situated knowledge collaboration comes with costs and the costs vary depending on the communication mechanism used. Some methods of generating knowledge, such as trial and error, or learning from experience, tend to create highly situational knowledge.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Synonymous with Free/Open Source Software. Free software or software libre is software that can be used, studied, and modified without restriction, and which can be copied and redistributed in either modified or unmodified form without restriction, or with minimal restrictions only to ensure that further recipients can also do these things and that manufacturers of consumer-facing hardware allow user modifications to their hardware. Free software is generally available without charge, but can have a fee, such as in the form of charging for CDs or other distribution medium among other ways. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">The FSF recommends using the term "free software" rather than "open source software" because, they state in a paper on Free Software philosophy, the latter term and the associated marketing campaign focuses on the technical issues of software development, avoiding the issue of user freedoms. "Libre" is often used to avoid the ambiguity of the word "free" in English language.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">software libre **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-right: 0.9pt;">The term software patent does not have a universally accepted definition. Software patent as defined by the “foundation for a free information infrastructure” is that a software patent is a “patent on any performance of a computer realised by means of a computer program.” A patent is a set of exclusionary rights granted by a state to a patent holder for a limited period of time, usually 20 years. These rights are granted to patent applicants in exchange for their disclosure of the inventions. Once a patent is granted in a given country, no person may make, use, sell or import/export the claimed invention in that country without the permission of the patent holder. Permission, where granted, is typically in the form of a license which conditions are set by the patent owner: it may be free or in return for a royalty payment or lump sum fee. Patents are territorial in nature. To obtain a patent, inventors must file patent applications in each and every country in which they want a patent.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">software patents **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Initially, a programmer writes a program in a particular programming language. This form of the program is called the //source// //program,// or more generically, //source code.// To execute the program, however, the programmer must translate it into machine language, the language that the computer understands. Source code is the only format that is readable by humans. When you purchase programs, you usually receive them in their machine-language format. This means that you can execute them directly, but you cannot read or modify them. Some software manufacturers provide source code, but this is useful only if you are an experienced programmer.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">source code **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">The Special 301 Report is prepared annually by the Office of the United States Trade Representative (USTR) under Section 301 as amended of the Trade Act of 1974. **//The reports identify trade barriers to US companies and products due to the intellectual property laws, such as copyright, patents and trademarks, in other countries.//** <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Each year the USTR must identify countries, which do not provide "adequate and effective" protection of intellectual property rights or "fair and equitable market access to United States person that rely upon intellectual property rights".
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Special 301 reports **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Spolsky: “You're a software developer. Me too. But we may not have the same goals and requirements. In fact there are several different worlds of software development, and different rules apply to different worlds. ”
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Spolsky's “five worlds” **

<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">i) **<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Shrinkwrap **<span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">- software that will be installed and used by thousands or millions of people. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; line-height: 12pt;">ii) **Internal**- software only has to work in one situation on one company's computers. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; line-height: 12pt;">iii) **Embedded**- goes in a piece of hardware and in almost every case can never be updated. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; line-height: 12pt;">iv) **Games**- economics of game development are hit-oriented. Some games are hits, many more games are failures, so sure that you have a portfolio of games so that the blockbuster hit makes up for the losses on the failures. <span style="color: black; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">v) **Throwaway**- code that you create temporarily solely for the purpose of obtaining something else, which you never need to use again once you obtain that thing

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; margin-right: 0.9pt;">One of the Livery Companies of the City of London. The Stationers' Company was founded in 1403; it received a Royal Charter in 1557. **//It held a monopoly over the publishing industry and was officially responsible for setting and enforcing copyright regulations until the passage of the Statute of Anne in 1709.//** In the 16th century the Stationers' Company was given the power to require all lawfully printed books to be entered into its register. Only members of the Stationers' Company could enter books into the register. This meant that the Stationers' Company achieved a dominant position over publishing in 17th century England.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Stationers Company **

**//<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">First copyright statute in the Kingdom of Great Britain. //**<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> It was enacted in 1709 and entered into force on 10 April 1710. It is generally considered to be the first fully-fledged copyright statute. It is named after Queen Anne, during whose reign it was enacted. **//The Statue of Anne is now seen as the origin of copyright law.//**
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Statute of Anne **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">The Statute of Monopolies was an Act of the Parliament of England notable as the **//first statutory expression of English patent law.//** The statute has long been considered a key moment in patent law.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Statute of Monopolies **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">- getting others to acquire your knowledge can be difficult <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> - acquiring users' knowledge can be costly
 * <span style="background-color: red; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">sticky knowledge **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Goods whose **//demand//** increases when the **//price//** of another good is increased. Conversely, the demand for a good is decreased when the price of another good is decreased. Classic examples of substitute goods include margarine and butter, or petroleum and natural gas (used for heating or electricity). The fact that one good is substitutable for another has immediate economic consequences: insofar as one good can be substituted for another, the demand for the two kinds of good will be bound together by the fact that customers can trade off one good for the other if it becomes economically advantageous to do so.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">substitute goods **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Subversion can operate across networks, which allows it to be used by people on different computers. At some level, the ability for various people to modify and manage the same set of data from their respective locations fosters collaboration. Progress can occur more quickly without a single channel through which all modifications must occur. And because the work is versioned, you need not fear that quality is the trade-off for losing that channel—if some incorrect change is made to the data, just undo that change.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Subversion **
 * //<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">A free/open source version control system. That is, Subversion manages files and directories, and the changes made to them, over time. //**<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> This allows you to recover older versions of your data or examine the history of how your data changed. In this regard, many people think of a version control system as a sort of “time machine.”

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">In 1982 a group of Unix hackers from Berkeley founded sun microsystems on the belief that Unix running on relatively inexpensive 68000-based hardware would prove a winning combination for a wide variety of applications. The **//workstations//** were cheap for corporations and universities. Sun microsystem was meant “to commercialize Unix”
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Sun Microsystems **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Targeted prizes are ex ante. They rewared solutions to needs that originate with sponsors, and the sponsor’s needs are formalized in performance standards that must be met to claim the prize. The inventor’s idea is a solution that the sponsor’s stated need.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">targeted and blue-sky prize **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Blue –sky prizes refers to the possibility of getting rewards ex post. These are prizes offered for innovations that are not identified in advance. Instead, judges are allowed to “ know it when they see it.” Blue Sky prizes must be tailored ex post to the value of the innovation, thus there are no pre-specified performance standards.

With “blue-sky” prizes the main advantage is that due to its fluid criteria, the innovator is given great creative freedom. However, there is no guarantee that the prize will be adequate for the innovation, because it is determined after its release. The inventor is forced to choose between obtaining an unpredictable prize or being granted a patent. A “targeted” prize prevents the same creativity as blue-sky, because specific criteria may be imposed on the innovation. However, the innovator can refuse the target prize until it at least equals the patent’s value, providing more predictability than the blue-sky prize.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">a distinctive sign or indicator used by an individual, business organization, or other legal entity to identify that the products or services to consumers with which the trademark appears originate from a unique source, and to distinguish its products or services from those of other entities.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Trademark **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">A trademark is typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image, or a combination of these elements. There is also a range of non-conventional trademarks comprising marks, which do not fall into these standard categories, such as those, based on color, smell, or sound.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">The owner of a common law trademark may also file suit, but an unregistered mark may be protectable only within the geographical area within which it has been used or in geographical areas into which it may be reasonably expected to expand.
 * //<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">The owner of a registered trademark may commence legal proceedings for trademark infringement to prevent unauthorized use of that trademark. However, registration is not required. //**

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">A cost incurred in making an economic exchange (restated: the cost of participating in a market). For example, most people, when buying or selling a stock, must pay a commission to their broker; that commission is a transaction cost of doing the stock deal.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">transaction costs **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> Or consider buying a banana from a store; to purchase the banana, your costs will be not only the price of the banana itself, but also the energy and effort it requires to find out which of the various banana products you prefer, where to get them and at what price, the cost of traveling from your house to the store and back, the time waiting in line, and the effort of the paying itself; the costs above and beyond the cost of the banana are the transaction costs. When rationally evaluating a potential transaction, it is important to consider transaction costs that might prove significant.

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">The Agreement on **//T//**//rade **R**elated aspects of **I**ntellectual **P**roperty rights// (TRIPS) is **//an international agreement administrated by the world trade organization that sets down the min. standards for many forms of intellectual property.//** <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">TRIPS contains many requirements that notions laws must meet for copyrights, including the rights of performers, producers of sound recordings and broadcasting organizations. TRIPS also specifies enforcement procedures, remedies, and dispute resolution procedures. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Protection and enforcement of all intellectual property rights shall meet the objectives to contribute to the promotion of technological innovation and to the transfer and distribution of technology, to the mutual advantage of producers and users of technological knowledge and in a manner favourable to social and economic welfare, and to a balance of rights and obligations.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">TRIPS **
 * //<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">The TRIPS agreement introduced intellectual property law into the international trading system for the first time and remains the most comprehensive international agreement on intellectual property to date. //**

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">When the level of investment in a good is below the optimal level. This is a result of the free-rider problem
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Underinvestment **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Developed in 1969, this was a simple and flexible operating system. Written in a simple language called “C”, Unix was portable between different and new machines.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Unix **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Refers to innovation by intermediate users, like consumer users (individual end-users or user communities), rather than by suppliers (producers or manufacturers). Many products and services are actually developed or at least refined, by users, at the site of implementation and use. These ideas are then moved back into the supply network. This is because products are developed to meet the widest possible need; when individual users face problems that the majority of consumers do not, they have no choice but to develop their own modifications to existing products, or entirely new products, to solve their issues. Often, user innovators will share their ideas with manufacturers in hopes of having them produce the product, a process called free revealing. Based on research on the evolution of Internet technologies and open source software it is found that users are fundamentally social. User innovation, therefore, is also socially and socio-technically distributed innovation.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">user innovation **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">A lawsuit brought in the United States in 1992 by Unix System Laboratories against Berkeley Software Design, and the Regents of the University of California over intellectual property related to UNIX. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">The case was settled out of court in 1993 after the judge expressed doubt in the validity of USL's intellectual property, with Novell (who by that time had bought USL) and BSDi agreeing not to charge further over the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD), which would later develop into a range of BSD distributions, each tuned to its own specific audience's strengths and markets. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">The suit has its roots at the Computer Systems Research Group at the University of California, Berkeley, which had a license for the source code of UNIX from AT&T's Bell Labs.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">USL v BSDi **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">(reversion control system) is a combination of technologies and practices for tracking and controlling changes to a projects files, in particular to source code, documentation, and web pages. It helps with the virtually every aspect of running a project. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">It is most commonly used in software development, where a team of people may change the same files, the changes are usually identifiable by a number or letter code. Each reversion is associated with a timestamp and the person making the change. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">Reversions can be compared, restored, shared with some types of files and merged. The core of version control is “change management”.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">version control system **

<span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">in-house development +network externalities=vertical integration. <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;"> Vertical Integration is the process of integrating subsystems according to their functionality by creating functional entities also referred to as silos.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">vertical integration **


 * <span style="background-color: red; font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">virtual identity standard **

The world intellectual property organization is one of the 16 specialized agencies of the United Nations. It was created in 1967 to encourage creative activity, to promote protection of intellectual property throughout the world. WIPO currently has 184 member states and its headquarters is in Geneva, Switzerland.
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif;">WIPO **